Analysis of a structure modeled with inconsistencies mapped thereon

ABSTRACT

A method for analyzing a structure includes processing nondestructive inspection (NDI) data for a multi-layer structure to define areas of inconsistency at an internal layer or an interface between adjacent layers. The method includes mapping the areas of inconsistency to finite elements of a finite element model of a nominal of the structure. These finite elements are thereby identified as affected finite elements and include finite elements for the affected internal layer or interface. The method includes producing a reconstructed finite element model of the affected structure from the nominal finite element model, and a modified property or state value assigned to respective element datasets of the affected finite elements. The method includes performing a finite element method (FEM) failure analysis of the reconstructed finite element model under a load, which indicates an extent of residual integrity of the affected structure.

TECHNOLOGICAL FIELD

The present disclosure relates generally to analysis of a structure and,in particular, to progressive failure analysis of a structure modeledwith inconsistencies.

BACKGROUND

The use of composite materials is increasingly becoming the new norm forairframe construction. Many composite aircraft structures are made ofmonolithic laminates that are susceptible to inconsistencies, such asdefects or damage. These inconsistencies may occur on the factory floorfor just-manufactured structures during an aircraft build, as well as inthe field for in-service aircraft. This may be equally true ofstructures in a number of contexts, such as in the context of structuresof any of a number of manned or unmanned vehicles (e.g., motor vehicles,railed vehicles, watercraft, aircraft, spacecraft).

Primary composite structures may be designed to a positive compressionafter impact (CAI) margin based on specific impact energy levels. Inpractice, however, impact events may be complicated and impact energymay be unknown. When an impact event occurs, nondestructive inspection(NDI) procedures may be performed to determine the extent of some damageto or defect in a structure. In the case of ultrasonic inspection, theNDI data in the form of C-Scan images may be available to serviceengineers who have to disposition such damage/defect according to presetallowable damage limits (ADLs) defined in a structural repair manual(SRM).

Current techniques for defect and damage analysis may also be applicableto other types of inconsistencies, such as impact-induced delamination,topology change, heat-induced chemical change and the like. Thesetechniques are highly-conservative processes, from interpretation of theNDI data to the analysis of the defective/damaged structure. And thesehighly-conservative processes can potentially lead to unnecessary rework(e.g., repair, replacement). It may therefore be desirable to have anapparatus and method that addresses these challenges, and improves uponexisting practices while still ensuring continued airworthiness perregulatory requirements.

BRIEF SUMMARY

Example implementations of the present disclosure are directed to animproved apparatus, method and computer-readable storage medium foranalysis of a structure modeled with inconsistencies mapped thereon. Insome example implementations, NDI data (e.g., ultrasound time of flightC-Scan data) for an affected structure may be mapped to a finite elementmodel of a nominal of the structure (pristine, without inconsistency). Afinite element method (FEM) based failure analysis on the reconstructedfinite element model that contains the actual inconsistencies may thenbe carried out to indicate the extent of residual integrity of thestructure.

Example implementations of the present disclosure may have any of anumber of different contexts. One example of a suitable context is onincorporating delaminations caused by impact damage into the residualstrength model. In this context, example implementations may provide anadvanced algorithm to identify delamination areas between adjacentlayers in a multi-layer structure, based on conventional ultrasoundpulse echo data. Example implementations may reconstruct a finiteelement model of a nominal of the structure to contain the actualdelaminations. FEM failure analysis (such as progressive failureanalysis (PFA)) may be performed, so as to simulate the compressionafter impact (CAI) test to final failure, which may indicate the extentof residual integrity of the structure and thereby provide a moreaccurate assessment of the necessity of any needed rework (e.g., repair,replacement). Some example implementations may therefore enablereal-time, condition-based structural damage assessment, rework andmaintenance for composite aircraft fleets.

The present disclosure thus includes, without limitation, the followingexample implementations. In some example implementations, a method isprovided for analyzing a structure. The method includes processingnondestructive inspection (NDI) data for an affected structure composedof a plurality of layers, with the NDI data being processed to define anarea of inconsistency at an internal layer of the plurality of layers,or an interface between a particular pair of adjacent layers in theplurality of layers. The method includes receiving a finite elementmodel of a nominal of the affected structure, with the finite elementmodel being composed of a plurality of finite elements having respectiveelement datasets, the plurality of finite elements including a mesh offinite elements for each of the plurality of layers, and finite elementsat an interface between each pair of adjacent layers in the plurality oflayers. The method also includes mapping the area of inconsistency to atleast some of the plurality of finite elements that are therebyidentified as affected finite elements, and that include finite elementsof the mesh of finite elements for the internal layer, or the finiteelements at the interface between the particular pair of adjacentlayers. The method includes producing a reconstructed finite elementmodel of the affected structure from the finite element model of thenominal, and a modified property or state value assigned to respectiveelement datasets of the affected finite elements. The method includesperforming a FEM failure analysis of the reconstructed finite elementmodel under a load, with the FEM failure analysis producing an outputthat indicates an extent of residual integrity of the affectedstructure.

In some example implementations of the method of the preceding or anysubsequent example implementation, or any combination thereof, the NDIdata is processed to define a plurality of areas of inconsistency, atleast two of which are at different layers of the plurality of layers,at interfaces between different pairs of adjacent layers in theplurality of layers, or at a layer of the plurality of layers and aninterface between a pair of adjacent layers in the plurality of layers.In these example implementations, mapping the area of inconsistencyincludes mapping the plurality of areas of inconsistency that arethereby identified as the affected finite elements.

In some example implementations of the method of any preceding or anysubsequent example implementation, or any combination thereof, the NDIdata includes a plurality of data points having respectivethree-dimensional positions within a coordinate system of the affectedstructure. In these example implementations, processing the NDI datacomprises converting data points of the plurality of data points tocorresponding data points having respective two-dimensional positions atthe internal layer or the interface between the particular pair ofadjacent layers; and calculating an outer boundary of the correspondingdata points to define the area of inconsistency at the internal layer orthe interface between the particular pair of adjacent layers.

In some example implementations of the method of any preceding or anysubsequent example implementation, or any combination thereof,processing the NDI data further includes assigning the modified propertyor state value to the area of inconsistency.

In some example implementations of the method of any preceding or anysubsequent example implementation, or any combination thereof, the NDIdata is processed to define a plurality of areas of inconsistency, atleast two of which are at different layers of the plurality of layers,at interfaces between different pairs of adjacent layers in theplurality of layers, or at a layer of the plurality of layers and aninterface between a pair of adjacent layers in the plurality of layers.In these example implementations, converting the data points andcalculating the outer boundary are performed for each area ofinconsistency of the plurality of areas of inconsistency.

In some example implementations of the method of any preceding or anysubsequent example implementation, or any combination thereof, the NDIdata includes a plurality of NDI datasets from a respective plurality ofnondestructive inspections of the affected structure. In these exampleimplementations, processing the NDI data comprises processing theplurality of NDI datasets to define a respective plurality of areas atthe internal layer or interface between the particular pair of adjacentlayers; and consolidating overlapping areas of the respective pluralityof areas to define the area of inconsistency at the internal layer orinterface between the particular pair of adjacent layers.

In some example implementations of the method of any preceding or anysubsequent example implementation, or any combination thereof, mappingthe area of inconsistency includes identifying each of the plurality offinite elements having at least a threshold percentage that overlaps thearea of inconsistency.

In some example implementations, an apparatus is provided forimplementation of a system for analyzing a structure. The apparatuscomprises a processor and a memory storing executable instructions that,in response to execution by the processor, cause the apparatus to atleast perform the method of any preceding example implementation, or anycombination thereof. This may include implementation of subsystems ofthe system, such as a NDI process module, finite element model inputinterface, mapping module, reconstitution module and/or FEM failureanalyzer, configured to perform steps of the method.

In some example implementations, a computer-readable storage medium isprovided for analyzing a structure. The computer-readable storage mediumis non-transitory and has computer-readable program code portions storedtherein that, in response to execution by a processor, cause anapparatus to at least perform the method of any preceding exampleimplementation, or any combination thereof.

These and other features, aspects, and advantages of the presentdisclosure will be apparent from a reading of the following detaileddescription together with the accompanying drawings, which are brieflydescribed below. The present disclosure includes any combination of two,three, four or more features or elements set forth in this disclosure,regardless of whether such features or elements are expressly combinedor otherwise recited in a specific example implementation describedherein. This disclosure is intended to be read holistically such thatany separable features or elements of the disclosure, in any of itsaspects and example implementations, should be viewed as intended,namely to be combinable, unless the context of the disclosure clearlydictates otherwise.

It will therefore be appreciated that this Brief Summary is providedmerely for purposes of summarizing some example implementations so as toprovide a basic understanding of some aspects of the disclosure.Accordingly, it will be appreciated that the above described exampleimplementations are merely examples and should not be construed tonarrow the scope or spirit of the disclosure in any way. Other exampleimplementations, aspects and advantages will become apparent from thefollowing detailed description taken in conjunction with theaccompanying drawings which illustrate, by way of example, theprinciples of some described example implementations.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING(S)

Having thus described example implementations of the disclosure ingeneral terms, reference will now be made to the accompanying drawings,which are not necessarily drawn to scale, and wherein:

FIG. 1 illustrates a system for analyzing a structure, according tovarious example implementations of the present disclosure;

FIG. 2 illustrates an affected structure composed of a plurality oflayers, and interfaces between adjacent layers in the plurality oflayers, according to various example implementations;

FIGS. 3A, 3B and 3C illustrate the affected structure of FIG. 2, withnondestructive inspections from the topmost and bottommost layers,according to various example implementations;

FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrate two areas of inconsistency mapped to finiteelements at an interface between adjacent layers in a finite elementmodel of an affected structure, according to various exampleimplementations;

FIGS. 5, 6 and 7 are flowcharts illustrating various steps in methodsaccording to various example implementations; and

FIG. 8 illustrates an apparatus according to some exampleimplementations.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Some implementations of the present disclosure will now be describedmore fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, inwhich some, but not all implementations of the disclosure are shown.Indeed, various implementations of the disclosure may be embodied inmany different forms and should not be construed as limited to theimplementations set forth herein; rather, these example implementationsare provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, andwill fully convey the scope of the disclosure to those skilled in theart. For example, unless otherwise indicated, reference to something asbeing a first, second or the like should not be construed to imply aparticular order. Also, for example, reference may be made herein toquantitative measures, values, relationships or the like (e.g., planar,coplanar, perpendicular). Unless otherwise stated, any one or more ifnot all of these may be absolute or approximate to account foracceptable variations that may occur, such as those due to engineeringtolerances or the like. Like reference numerals refer to like elementsthroughout.

Example implementations of the present disclosure relate generally tostructural finite element analysis and, in particular, to progressivefailure analysis of a structure modeled with inconsistencies. FIG. 1illustrates a system 100 for analyzing a structure, according to someexample implementations of the present disclosure. The structure may beany of a number of different structures composed of one or more layers(more specifically “plies” in some examples), each of which in someexamples may include fibers bound by a material often referred to as amatrix. Examples of suitable structures include composites, laminatedcomposites and the like, such as laminated composites of unidirectionaltape plies, layered metallic structures, metallic or composite skin andcore (sandwich structures) and the like. These structures may be put touse in a number of different manners, such as on manned or unmannedvehicles (e.g., motor vehicles, railed vehicles, watercraft, aircraft,spacecraft).

The system 100 may include one or more of each of any of a number ofdifferent subsystems (each an individual system) for performing one ormore functions or operations with respect to the structure analysis. Asshown, for example, the system may include a nondestructive inspection(NDI) process module 102, a finite element model input interface 104, amapping module 106, a reconstitution module 108 and a finite elementmethod (FEM) failure analyzer 110 coupled to one another. Although beingshown together as part of the system, it should be understood that anyone or more of the NDI process module, finite element model inputinterface, mapping module, reconstitution module or FEM failure analyzermay function or operate as a separate system without regard to theother. And further, it should be understood that the system may includeone or more additional or alternative subsystems than those shown inFIG. 1.

The NDI process module 102 may be configured to receive NDI data 112(e.g., ultrasound C-Scan data) for an affected structure composed of aplurality of layers, which may be produced from a nondestructiveinspection of the affected structure. The affected structure may besubjected to any of a number of different nondestructive inspectiontechniques that produce suitable NDI data. Examples of suitabletechniques include ultrasound, magnetic-particle, liquid penetrant,radiographic, remote visual inspection (RVI), Fourier Transform InfraredSpectroscopy (FTIR), eddy-current testing, low coherence interferometryand the like. In the case of ultrasound, the inspection may produceC-Scan time of flight data, which may correspond to one example ofsuitable NDI data.

FIG. 2 illustrates an affected structure 200 composed of a plurality oflayers 202, and interfaces between adjacent layers in the plurality oflayers. The structure may be composed of n layers, and correspondinglyinclude n−1 interfaces between adjacent layers. The layers andinterfaces may follow a number of different naming conventions, but inone example, may be numbered from a bottommost layer up to a topmostlayer. As also shown, the affected structure includes a number ofdelaminations 204 at the interface between various adjacent layers.

Returning to FIG. 1, the NDI process module 102 may be configured toprocess the NDI data 112 to define an area of inconsistency at aninternal layer of the plurality of layers, or an interface between aparticular pair of adjacent layers in the plurality of layers.Inconsistency in the structure may manifest in any of a number ofdifferent manners. Examples of suitable types of inconsistencies includedefects, inherent and induced damage, impact-induced delaminations andtopology changes, heat-induced chemical changes and the like.

In some examples, the NDI data 112 may include a plurality of datapoints having respective three-dimensional (3D) positions (x, y, z)within a coordinate system of the affected structure. In these examples,the NDI process module 102 may be configured to convert data points ofthe plurality of data points to corresponding data points havingrespective two-dimensional (2D) positions (x, y) at the internal layeror the interface between the particular pair of adjacent layers (e.g.,that reflect the z position). The NDI process module may then beconfigured to calculate an outer boundary (e.g., the convex hull) of thecorresponding data points to determine the 2D boundary of and therebydefine the area of inconsistency at the internal layer or the interfacebetween the particular pair of adjacent layers. In some furtherexamples, the NDI process module may be further configured to assignmodified property or state values to specific areas of inconsistency.

In some examples, the NDI process module 102 may be configured toprocess the NDI data 112 to define a plurality of areas ofinconsistency. These areas may be entirely at the same depth, entirelyat different depths, or some at the same depth and others at differentdepths. Thus, in some examples, at least two areas of inconsistency maybe at different depths. That is, in some examples, at least two of areasof inconsistency may be at different layers of the plurality of layers,at interfaces between different pairs of adjacent layers in theplurality of layers, or at a layer of the plurality of layers and aninterface between a pair of adjacent layers in the plurality of layers.In these examples, the NDI process module may be configured to convertthe data points and calculate the outer boundary for each area ofinconsistency of the plurality of areas of inconsistency.

In some examples, the NDI data 112 includes a plurality of NDI datasetsfrom a respective plurality of nondestructive inspections of theaffected structure. In these examples, the NDI process module may beconfigured to process the plurality of NDI datasets to define arespective plurality of areas at the internal layer or interface betweenthe particular pair of adjacent layers, and consolidate overlappingareas of the respective plurality of areas to define the area ofinconsistency at the internal layer or interface between the particularpair of adjacent layers.

In accordance with a number of nondestructive inspection techniques,radiation or sound may be utilized to penetrate the structure andreflection or penetration of the radiation/sound may be used todistinguish between a defect (or other inconsistency) and the bulk ofthe structure. But in accordance with some of these techniques, theradiation/sound may not penetrate the first occurrence of a defect andtherefore shadow or hide the detection of the defect/damage that isbeyond the first occurrence. It may therefore be beneficial to perform aplurality of nondestructive inspections of the affected structure, suchas from the topmost layer and the bottommost layer, which may facilitateidentification of as many defects as possible.

FIG. 3A illustrates the affected structure 200 of FIG. 2, withnondestructive inspection using a transducer 302 emitting penetratingradiation/sound from the topmost layer, and the delaminations that maybe identified therefrom. FIG. 3B illustrates the same affectedstructure, but with nondestructive inspection using the transduceremitting penetrating radiation/sound from the bottommost layer, and thedelaminations that may be identified therefrom. FIG. 3C shows thedelamination pattern that can be identified when the information fromFIG. 3A and FIG. 3B is combined. In accordance with exampleimplementations, NDI datasets from these inspections may be processed todefine areas of inconsistency that for overlapping areas on any layer orinterface may be consolidated to define the area for thelayer/interface.

Returning to FIG. 1, the finite element model input interface 104 may beconfigured to receive a finite element model 114 of a nominal of theaffected structure. The finite element model may be composed of aplurality of finite elements having respective element datasets. Moreparticularly, the plurality of finite elements may include a mesh offinite elements for each of the plurality of layers, and finite elementsat an interface between each pair of adjacent layers in the plurality oflayers. That is, the finite element model of the structure may includeone or more layers each of which is represented by a mesh of finiteelements. In addition to the mesh of finite elements that represent eachlayer, the finite element model may include an inter-layer interface(finite) element between adjacent layers of each pair of adjacent layersin the plurality of layers. In some examples, each inter-layer interfaceelement may be a zero-thickness finite element.

The finite elements of the finite element model may be or include one ormore disjointed (non-overlapping) components in which each finiteelement may possess a set of distinguishing points called nodal pointsor nodes. In some example implementations, the nodal points may belocated at the corners and/or end points of the elements such that thegeometry of an element may be defined by the placement of geometric setsof nodal points.

The finite elements may also have respective element datasets includingvalues of a property or state of the structure at the finite elements.Examples of suitable properties include geometric properties andconstitutive properties such as residual thickness, principal curvature,elastic modulus, thermal coefficient of expansion and the like. Theconstitutive properties may specify the material behavior of thestructure at the finite elements. Examples of suitable states includestate variables such as components of the derived stress and straintensors, and temperature at the finite elements.

The finite element model may be produced in any of a number of differentmanners, such as using commercially-available software tools. An exampleof a suitable software tool includes Abaqus, available from DassaultSystèmes S.A. of Vélizy-Villacoublay, France. Other examples of suitablesoftware tools include Altair Hypermesh, available from AltairEngineering, Inc. of Troy, Mich.; PATRAN, available from MSC SoftwareCorporation of Newport Beach, Calif.; the ANSYS software suite,available from ANSYS, Inc. of Canonsburg, Pa.; and the like.

The mapping module 106 may be configured to map the area ofinconsistency to at least some of the plurality of finite elements—orotherwise associate the area of inconsistency with at least some of theplurality of finite elements—that are thereby identified as affectedfinite elements. These affected finite elements may include finiteelements of the mesh of finite elements for the internal layer, or thefinite elements at the interface between the particular pair of adjacentlayers. In some examples, this may include the mapping module beingconfigured to identify each of the plurality of finite elements havingat least a threshold percentage that overlaps the area of inconsistency.And in some examples in which a plurality of areas of inconsistencyincluding at least two at different depths is defined, the mappingmodule 106 may be configured to map the plurality of areas ofinconsistency that are thereby identified as the affected finiteelements.

FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrate two areas of inconsistency 402 mapped tofinite elements 404 (thereby identified as affected finite elements) atan interface between adjacent layers in a finite element model of anaffected structure. In FIG. 4A, the affected finite elements may bethose having at least 50% that overlaps an area of inconsistency; and inFIG. 4B, the affected finite elements may be those that instead have atleast 40% that overlaps an area of inconsistency. As shown in FIG. 4B,reducing the threshold percentage from 50% to 40% may yield additionalfinite elements being identified as affected finite elements (two ofeight additional finite elements are specifically designated withreference numeral 406 in FIG. 4B).

Returning again to FIG. 1, the reconstitution module 108 may beconfigured to produce a reconstructed finite element model 116 of theaffected structure from the finite element model 114 of the nominal, anda modified property or state value assigned to respective elementdatasets of the affected finite elements. In some examples, a propertyvalue of the affected finite elements may be based on the NDI data andassociated test data generated for the particular inconsistency. Thisdata may be in the form of a look-up table that correlates theinconsistency and NDI data to the modified property value. Fordelaminations, for example, the affected finite elements may be assignednear-zero elastic properties and fracture energy values.

The FEM failure analyzer 110 may be configured to perform a FEM failureanalysis of the reconstructed finite element model 116 under a load. Inthis regard, boundary conditions may be introduced to the reconstructedfinite element model to apply a load to the model. This load may be anyof a number of different types of loads depending on the particularanalysis, but may include for example, tension, compression or the like.The FEM failure analysis may then be performed on the finite elementmodel under the applied load. This FEM failure analysis may produce anoutput that indicates an extent of residual integrity of the affectedstructure.

The FEM failure analyzer 110 may be configured to perform any number ofdifferent FEM failure analyses of the reconstructed finite element model116. In some examples, the layers and inter-layer interface elements maycapture respectively potential layer and inter-layer failure modes. Inthese examples, the output of the FEM failure analysis may indicate theextent of any of the potential layer and inter-layer failure modes thatresult from the reconstructed finite element model under the load. Thesefailure modes may be identified through any visualization tool thatshows the extent of the failed elements within the reconstructed finiteelement model by probing an output variable that indicates whether anelement has failed.

For its operations, the FEM failure analyzer 110 may include orotherwise benefit from commercially-available software tools. Examplesof suitable tools include Abaqus; the ANSYS software suite (Fluent);NASTRAN/PATRAN, available from MSC Software Corporation; LS-DYNA®,available from Livermore Software Technology Corporation (LSTC) ofLivermore, Calif.; and the like.

FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating various steps in a method 500 ofanalyzing a structure, according to some example implementations of thepresent disclosure. As shown at block 502, the method may includeprocessing NDI data 112 for an affected structure composed of aplurality of layers, with the NDI data being processed to define an areaof inconsistency at an internal layer of the plurality of layers, or aninterface between a particular pair of adjacent layers in the pluralityof layers.

The method may include receiving a finite element model 114 of a nominalof the affected structure, as shown at block 504. The finite elementmodel may be composed of a plurality of finite elements havingrespective element datasets. The plurality of finite elements mayinclude a mesh of finite elements for each of the plurality of layers,and finite elements at an interface between each pair of adjacent layersin the plurality of layers.

As shown at block 506, the method may also include mapping the area ofinconsistency to at least some of the plurality of finite elements thatare thereby identified as affected finite elements. These affectedfinite elements may include finite elements of the mesh of finiteelements for the internal layer, or the finite elements at the interfacebetween the particular pair of adjacent layers.

As shown at block 508, the method may include producing a reconstructedfinite element model 116 of the affected structure from the finiteelement model 114 of the nominal, and a modified property or state valueassigned to respective element datasets of the affected finite elements.And the method may include performing a FEM failure analysis of thereconstructed finite element model under a load, with the FEM failureanalysis producing an output that indicates an extent of residualintegrity of the affected structure, as shown at block 510. In instancesin which the affected structure has insufficient residual integrity, thestructure may be reworked (e.g., repaired, replaced); otherwise, thestructure may be left intact without performing any rework.

FIG. 6 is a flowchart illustrating more particularly various steps in amethod 600 of analyzing a structure, which may be a more specificimplementation of the method 500 of FIG. 5, according to some exampleimplementations of the present disclosure. As shown at blocks 602 and604, the method may include receipt and nondestructive inspection of anaffected structure to produce NDI data 606 (e.g., NDI data 112). Asshown at block 608, the method may include processing the NDI data toproduce processed NDI data 610 in which an area of inconsistency may bedefined at an internal layer of the plurality of layers, or an interfacebetween a particular pair of adjacent layers in the plurality of layers.

As shown at block 612, the method may include receiving a finite elementmodel 614 (e.g., finite element model 114) of a nominal of the affectedstructure, and mapping the area of inconsistency to at least some of itsfinite elements that are thereby identified as affected finite elements.The method may include reconstructing the finite element model of theaffected structure from the nominal finite element model and a modifiedproperty or state value assigned to respective element datasets of theaffected finite element, as shown at block 616, and thereby producing areconstructed finite element model 618 (e.g., reconstructed finiteelement model 116).

The method may include performing a FEM failure analysis of thereconstructed finite element model 618 under a load, which may producean output that indicates an extent of residual integrity of the affectedstructure, as shown at block 620. A determination may be made as to thesufficiency of the residual integrity of the affected structure, asshown at block 622. In instances in which the affected structure hasinsufficient residual integrity, the structure may be reworked (e.g.,repaired, replaced), as shown at block 624.

FIG. 7 illustrates various steps according to which NDI data 606 may beprocessed 608, according to some example implementations of the presentdisclosure. As shown at block 702, as appropriate, processing the NDIdata may include transformation of any NDI dataset from nondestructiveinspection of the affected structure, so that all NDI datasets are in acommon coordinate system. As shown at block 704, data points of NDI datahaving respective 3D positions may be converted to corresponding datapoints having respective 2D positions at any appropriate layer (e.g.,internal layer) or interface between the particular pair of adjacentlayers. Then, as shown at block 706, the outer boundary of thecorresponding data points may be calculated to determine the 2D boundaryof and thereby define the area of inconsistency at the (internal) layeror the interface between the particular pair of adjacent layers. And asshown in block 708, a modified property or state value may be assignedto the area of inconsistency.

The above steps may repeat for other NDI datasets of the NDI data 606,which may reflect NDI datasets for respective nondestructive inspectionsof the affected structure, as shown at block 710. In some examples inwhich multiple overlapping areas of inconsistency are defined by the NDIdatasets from multiple nondestructive inspections, the method may alsoinclude consolidation of overlapping areas, as shown at block 712. Theprocess may then output the processed NDI data 610, which again maydefine an area of inconsistency at an internal layer of the plurality oflayers, or an interface between a particular pair of adjacent layers inthe plurality of layers.

According to example implementations of the present disclosure, thesystem 100 and its subsystems including the NDI process module 102,finite element model input interface 104, mapping module 106,reconstitution module 108 and/or FEM failure analyzer 110 may beimplemented by various means. Means for implementing the system and itssubsystems may include hardware, alone or under direction of one or morecomputer programs from a computer-readable storage medium. In someexamples, one or more apparatuses may be configured to function as orotherwise implement the system and its subsystems shown and describedherein. In examples involving more than one apparatus, the respectiveapparatuses may be connected to or otherwise in communication with oneanother in a number of different manners, such as directly or indirectlyvia a wired or wireless network or the like.

FIG. 8 illustrates an apparatus 800 according to some exampleimplementations of the present disclosure. Generally, an apparatus ofexemplary implementations of the present disclosure may comprise,include or be embodied in one or more fixed or portable electronicdevices. Examples of suitable electronic devices include a smartphone,tablet computer, laptop computer, desktop computer, workstationcomputer, server computer or the like. The apparatus may include one ormore of each of a number of components such as, for example, a processor802 (e.g., processor unit) connected to a memory 804 (e.g., storagedevice).

The processor 802 is generally any piece of computer hardware that iscapable of processing information such as, for example, data, computerprograms and/or other suitable electronic information. The processor iscomposed of a collection of electronic circuits some of which may bepackaged as an integrated circuit or multiple interconnected integratedcircuits (an integrated circuit at times more commonly referred to as a“chip”). The processor may be configured to execute computer programs,which may be stored onboard the processor or otherwise stored in thememory 804 (of the same or another apparatus).

The processor 802 may be a number of processors, a multi-core processoror some other type of processor, depending on the particularimplementation. Further, the processor may be implemented using a numberof heterogeneous processor systems in which a main processor is presentwith one or more secondary processors on a single chip. As anotherillustrative example, the processor may be a symmetric multi-processorsystem containing multiple processors of the same type. In yet anotherexample, the processor may be embodied as or otherwise include one ormore ASICs, FPGAs or the like. Thus, although the processor may becapable of executing a computer program to perform one or morefunctions, the processor of various examples may be capable ofperforming one or more functions without the aid of a computer program.

The memory 804 is generally any piece of computer hardware that iscapable of storing information such as, for example, data, computerprograms (e.g., computer-readable program code 806) and/or othersuitable information either on a temporary basis and/or a permanentbasis. The memory may include volatile and/or non-volatile memory, andmay be fixed or removable. Examples of suitable memory include randomaccess memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), a hard drive, a flashmemory, a thumb drive, a removable computer diskette, an optical disk, amagnetic tape or some combination of the above. Optical disks mayinclude compact disk-read only memory (CD-ROM), compact disk-read/write(CD-R/W), DVD or the like. In various instances, the memory may bereferred to as a computer-readable storage medium. The computer-readablestorage medium is a non-transitory device capable of storinginformation, and is distinguishable from computer-readable transmissionmedia such as electronic transitory signals capable of carryinginformation from one location to another. Computer-readable medium asdescribed herein may generally refer to a computer-readable storagemedium or computer-readable transmission medium.

In addition to the memory 804, the processor 802 may also be connectedto one or more interfaces for displaying, transmitting and/or receivinginformation. The interfaces may include a communications interface 808(e.g., communications unit) and/or one or more user interfaces. Thecommunications interface may be configured to transmit and/or receiveinformation, such as to and/or from other apparatus(es), network(s) orthe like. The communications interface may be configured to transmitand/or receive information by physical (wired) and/or wirelesscommunications links. Examples of suitable communication interfacesinclude a network interface controller (NIC), wireless NIC (WNIC) or thelike.

The user interfaces may include a display 810 and/or one or more userinput interfaces 812 (e.g., input/output unit). The display may beconfigured to present or otherwise display information to a user,suitable examples of which include a liquid crystal display (LCD),light-emitting diode display (LED), plasma display panel (PDP) or thelike. The user input interfaces may be wired or wireless, and may beconfigured to receive information from a user into the apparatus, suchas for processing, storage and/or display. Suitable examples of userinput interfaces include a microphone, image or video capture device,keyboard or keypad, joystick, touch-sensitive surface (separate from orintegrated into a touchscreen), biometric sensor or the like. The userinterfaces may further include one or more interfaces for communicatingwith peripherals such as printers, scanners or the like.

As indicated above, program code instructions may be stored in memory,and executed by a processor, to implement functions of the systems,subsystems, tools and their respective elements described herein. Aswill be appreciated, any suitable program code instructions may beloaded onto a computer or other programmable apparatus from acomputer-readable storage medium to produce a particular machine, suchthat the particular machine becomes a means for implementing thefunctions specified herein. These program code instructions may also bestored in a computer-readable storage medium that can direct a computer,a processor or other programmable apparatus to function in a particularmanner to thereby generate a particular machine or particular article ofmanufacture. The instructions stored in the computer-readable storagemedium may produce an article of manufacture, where the article ofmanufacture becomes a means for implementing functions described herein.The program code instructions may be retrieved from a computer-readablestorage medium and loaded into a computer, processor or otherprogrammable apparatus to configure the computer, processor or otherprogrammable apparatus to execute operations to be performed on or bythe computer, processor or other programmable apparatus.

Retrieval, loading and execution of the program code instructions may beperformed sequentially such that one instruction is retrieved, loadedand executed at a time. In some example implementations, retrieval,loading and/or execution may be performed in parallel such that multipleinstructions are retrieved, loaded, and/or executed together. Executionof the program code instructions may produce a computer-implementedprocess such that the instructions executed by the computer, processoror other programmable apparatus provide operations for implementingfunctions described herein.

Execution of instructions by a processor, or storage of instructions ina computer-readable storage medium, supports combinations of operationsfor performing the specified functions. In this manner, an apparatus 800may include a processor 802 and a computer-readable storage medium ormemory 804 coupled to the processor, where the processor is configuredto execute computer-readable program code 806 stored in the memory. Itwill also be understood that one or more functions, and combinations offunctions, may be implemented by special purpose hardware-based computersystems and/or processors which perform the specified functions, orcombinations of special purpose hardware and program code instructions.

Many modifications and other implementations of the disclosure set forthherein will come to mind to one skilled in the art to which thedisclosure pertains having the benefit of the teachings presented in theforegoing description and the associated drawings. Therefore, it is tobe understood that the disclosure is not to be limited to the specificimplementations disclosed and that modifications and otherimplementations are intended to be included within the scope of theappended claims. Moreover, although the foregoing description and theassociated drawings describe example implementations in the context ofcertain example combinations of elements and/or functions, it should beappreciated that different combinations of elements and/or functions maybe provided by alternative implementations without departing from thescope of the appended claims. In this regard, for example, differentcombinations of elements and/or functions than those explicitlydescribed above are also contemplated as may be set forth in some of theappended claims. Although specific terms are employed herein, they areused in a generic and descriptive sense only and not for purposes oflimitation.

What is claimed is:
 1. An apparatus for implementation of a system foranalyzing a structure, the apparatus comprising a processor and a memorystoring executable instructions that, in response to execution by theprocessor, cause the apparatus to implement at least: a nondestructiveinspection (NDI) process module configured to process NDI data for anaffected structure composed of a plurality of layers, the NDI data beingprocessed to define an area of inconsistency at an internal layer of theplurality of layers, or an interface between a particular pair ofadjacent layers in the plurality of layers; a finite element model inputinterface configured to receive a finite element model of a nominal ofthe affected structure, the finite element model being composed of aplurality of finite elements having respective element datasets, theplurality of finite elements including a mesh of finite elements foreach of the plurality of layers, and finite elements at an interfacebetween each pair of adjacent layers in the plurality of layers; amapping module configured to map the area of inconsistency to at leastsome of the plurality of finite elements that are thereby identified asaffected finite elements, and that include finite elements of the meshof finite elements for the internal layer, or the finite elements at theinterface between the particular pair of adjacent layers; areconstitution module configured to produce a reconstructed finiteelement model of the affected structure from the finite element model ofthe nominal, and a modified property or state value assigned torespective element datasets of the affected finite elements; and afinite element method (FEM) failure analyzer configured to perform a FEMfailure analysis of the reconstructed finite element model under a load,the FEM failure analysis producing an output that indicates an extent ofresidual integrity of the affected structure.
 2. The apparatus of claim1, wherein the NDI process module is configured to process the NDI datato define a plurality of areas of inconsistency, at least two of whichare at different layers of the plurality of layers, at interfacesbetween different pairs of adjacent layers in the plurality of layers,or at a layer of the plurality of layers and an interface between a pairof adjacent layers in the plurality of layers, and wherein the mappingmodule being configured to map the area of inconsistency includes beingconfigured to map the plurality of areas of inconsistency that arethereby identified as the affected finite elements.
 3. The apparatus ofclaim 1, wherein the NDI data includes a plurality of data points havingrespective three-dimensional positions within a coordinate system of theaffected structure, and the NDI process module being configured toprocess the NDI data includes being configured to: convert data pointsof the plurality of data points to corresponding data points havingrespective two-dimensional positions at the internal layer or theinterface between the particular pair of adjacent layers; and calculatean outer boundary of the corresponding data points to determine thetwo-dimensional boundary of and thereby define the area of inconsistencyat the internal layer or the interface between the particular pair ofadjacent layers.
 4. The apparatus of claim 3, wherein the NDI processmodule being configured to process the NDI data further includes beingconfigured to assign the modified property or state value to the area ofinconsistency.
 5. The apparatus of claim 3, wherein the NDI processmodule is configured to process the NDI data to define a plurality ofareas of inconsistency, at least two of which are at different layers ofthe plurality of layers, at interfaces between different pairs ofadjacent layers in the plurality of layers, or at a layer of theplurality of layers and an interface between a pair of adjacent layersin the plurality of layers, and wherein the NDI process module isconfigured to convert the data points and calculate the outer boundaryfor each area of inconsistency of the plurality of areas ofinconsistency.
 6. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the NDI dataincludes a plurality of NDI datasets from a respective plurality ofnondestructive inspections of the affected structure, and the NDIprocess module being configured to process the NDI data includes beingconfigured to: process the plurality of NDI datasets to define arespective plurality of areas at the internal layer or interface betweenthe particular pair of adjacent layers; and consolidate overlappingareas of the respective plurality of areas to define the area ofinconsistency at the internal layer or interface between the particularpair of adjacent layers.
 7. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein themapping module being configured to map the area of inconsistencyincludes being configured to identify each of the plurality of finiteelements having at least a threshold percentage that overlaps the areaof inconsistency.
 8. A method of analyzing a structure, the methodcomprising: processing nondestructive inspection (NDI) data for anaffected structure composed of a plurality of layers, the NDI data beingprocessed to define an area of inconsistency at an internal layer of theplurality of layers, or an interface between a particular pair ofadjacent layers in the plurality of layers; receiving a finite elementmodel of a nominal of the affected structure, the finite element modelbeing composed of a plurality of finite elements having respectiveelement datasets, the plurality of finite elements including a mesh offinite elements for each of the plurality of layers, and finite elementsat an interface between each pair of adjacent layers in the plurality oflayers; mapping the area of inconsistency to at least some of theplurality of finite elements that are thereby identified as affectedfinite elements, and that include finite elements of the mesh of finiteelements for the internal layer, or the finite elements at the interfacebetween the particular pair of adjacent layers; producing areconstructed finite element model of the affected structure from thefinite element model of the nominal, and a modified property or statevalue assigned to respective element datasets of the affected finiteelements; and performing a finite element method (FEM) failure analysisof the reconstructed finite element model under a load, the FEM failureanalysis producing an output that indicates an extent of residualintegrity of the affected structure.
 9. The method of claim 8, whereinthe NDI data is processed to define a plurality of areas ofinconsistency, at least two of which are at different layers of theplurality of layers, at interfaces between different pairs of adjacentlayers in the plurality of layers, or at a layer of the plurality oflayers and an interface between a pair of adjacent layers in theplurality of layers, and wherein mapping the area of inconsistencyincludes mapping the plurality of areas of inconsistency that arethereby identified as the affected finite elements.
 10. The method ofclaim 8, wherein the NDI data includes a plurality of data points havingrespective three-dimensional positions within a coordinate system of theaffected structure, and processing the NDI data comprises: convertingdata points of the plurality of data points to corresponding data pointshaving respective two-dimensional positions at the internal layer or theinterface between the particular pair of adjacent layers; andcalculating an outer boundary of the corresponding data points todetermine the two-dimensional boundary of and thereby define the area ofinconsistency at the internal layer or the interface between theparticular pair of adjacent layers.
 11. The method of claim 10, whereinprocessing the NDI data further includes assigning the modified propertyor state value to the area of inconsistency.
 12. The method of claim 10,wherein the NDI data is processed to define a plurality of areas ofinconsistency, at least two of which are at different layers of theplurality of layers, at interfaces between different pairs of adjacentlayers in the plurality of layers, or at a layer of the plurality oflayers and an interface between a pair of adjacent layers in theplurality of layers, and wherein converting the data points andcalculating the outer boundary are performed for each area ofinconsistency of the plurality of areas of inconsistency.
 13. The methodof claim 8, wherein the NDI data includes a plurality of NDI datasetsfrom a respective plurality of nondestructive inspections of theaffected structure, and processing the NDI data comprises: processingthe plurality of NDI datasets to define a respective plurality of areasat the internal layer or interface between the particular pair ofadjacent layers; and consolidating overlapping areas of the respectiveplurality of areas to define the area of inconsistency at the internallayer or interface between the particular pair of adjacent layers. 14.The method of claim 8, wherein mapping the area of inconsistencyincludes identifying each of the plurality of finite elements having atleast a threshold percentage that overlaps the area of inconsistency.15. A computer-readable storage medium for analyzing a structure, thecomputer-readable storage medium being non-transitory and havingcomputer-readable program code portions stored therein that in responseto execution by a processor, cause an apparatus to at least: process NDIdata for an affected structure composed of a plurality of layers, theNDI data being processed to define an area of inconsistency at aninternal layer of the plurality of layers, or an interface between aparticular pair of adjacent layers in the plurality of layers; receive afinite element model of a nominal of the affected structure, the finiteelement model being composed of a plurality of finite elements havingrespective element datasets, the plurality of finite elements includinga mesh of finite elements for each of the plurality of layers, andfinite elements at an interface between each pair of adjacent layers inthe plurality of layers; map the area of inconsistency to at least someof the plurality of finite elements that are thereby identified asaffected finite elements, and that include finite elements of the meshof finite elements for the internal layer, or the finite elements at theinterface between the particular pair of adjacent layers; produce areconstructed finite element model of the affected structure from thefinite element model of the nominal, and a modified property or statevalue assigned to respective element datasets of the affected finiteelements; and perform a finite element method (FEM) failure analysis ofthe reconstructed finite element model under a load, the FEM failureanalysis producing an output that indicates an extent of residualintegrity of the affected structure.
 16. The computer-readable storagemedium of claim 15, wherein the apparatus is caused to process the NDIdata to define a plurality of areas of inconsistency, at least two ofwhich are at different layers of the plurality of layers, at interfacesbetween different pairs of adjacent layers in the plurality of layers,or at a layer of the plurality of layers and an interface between a pairof adjacent layers in the plurality of layers, and wherein the apparatusbeing caused to map the area of inconsistency includes being caused tomap the plurality of areas of inconsistency that are thereby identifiedas the affected finite elements.
 17. The computer-readable storagemedium of claim 15, wherein the NDI data includes a plurality of datapoints having respective three-dimensional positions within a coordinatesystem of the affected structure, and the apparatus being caused toprocess the NDI data includes being caused to: convert data points ofthe plurality of data points to corresponding data points havingrespective two-dimensional positions at the internal layer or theinterface between the particular pair of adjacent layers; and calculatean outer boundary of the corresponding data points to determine thetwo-dimensional boundary of and thereby define the area of inconsistencyat the internal layer or the interface between the particular pair ofadjacent layers.
 18. The computer-readable storage medium of claim 17,wherein the apparatus being caused to process the NDI data furtherincludes being caused to assign the modified property or state value tothe area of inconsistency.
 19. The computer-readable storage medium ofclaim 17, wherein the apparatus is caused to process the NDI data todefine a plurality of areas of inconsistency, at least two of which areat different layers of the plurality of layers, at interfaces betweendifferent pairs of adjacent layers in the plurality of layers, or at alayer of the plurality of layers and an interface between a pair ofadjacent layers in the plurality of layers, and wherein the apparatus iscaused to convert the data points and calculate the outer boundary foreach area of inconsistency of the plurality of areas of inconsistency.20. The computer-readable storage medium of claim 15, wherein the NDIdata includes a plurality of NDI datasets from a respective plurality ofnondestructive inspections of the affected structure, and the apparatusbeing caused to process the NDI data includes being caused to: processthe plurality of NDI datasets to define a respective plurality of areasat the internal layer or interface between the particular pair ofadjacent layers; and consolidate overlapping areas of the respectiveplurality of areas to define the area of inconsistency at the internallayer or interface between the particular pair of adjacent layers. 21.The computer-readable storage medium of claim 15, wherein the apparatusbeing caused to map the area of inconsistency includes being caused toidentify each of the plurality of finite elements having at least athreshold percentage that overlaps the area of inconsistency.